Sorry to bump an old thread but I found the solution for this. Our environment does not allow access to the Windows Store and we were encountering the same issue.
You need to leverage the .xml license file included in the package. I used powershell to accomplish it.
[as administrator]
add-appxprovisionedpackage -packagepath "\\path\to\Esri.CollectorforArcGIS_18.0.2.0_neutral_~_eytg3kh68c6a8.AppxBundle" -licensepath "\\path\to\Esri.CollectorforArcGIS_eytg3kh68c6a8_fe8f779c-a85b-7bde-46c4-970b7fbd7ab4.xml" -online
This will install the app in "provisioned" mode which means that all future users will get the package. It will generally install for the existing users but I've seen where it doesn't.
To install from an existing provisioned install, you can use a variation of the following:
add-appxpackage -register "C:\Program Files\WindowsApps\Esri.CollectorforArcGIS_18.0.2.0_neutral_~_eytg3kh68c6a8\AppxMetadata\AppxBundleManifest.xml" -disabledevelopmentmode
YMMV
Hope this helps someone else out here!